The space where humans, animals and plants live consists of air, water and soil. Environmental policy refers to all laws, systems, organizations, financial resources and governance to control the discharge, clean up and monitoring of pollutants to protect this space from contamination.
 
Seoul’s environmental policy can be classified into pollution control, water supply, sewage system, waste management and parks & landscape. The starting point of environmental policies in these areas can be found by looking at the changes of administrative organizations in Seoul and environment-related laws and regulations.
 
Water supply projects began during the Japanese colonial era and the relevant organizations existed in 1945 when Korea was liberated. A waste management system was set up in 1950, when the Korean War began, to handle sanitation issues. The administrative organization for sewage system management was established in 1961, and public sewage treatment facilities began operations in 1976. Seoul’s civil construction department began work on parks and landscaping in 1963, and an exclusive organization was formed in 1973. The management organization for air and water pollution and control of emission sources, the last of the 5 environmental policy areas, was established in 1968.
 
After thorough amendment and enactment of related laws and regulations in the early 1990s, environmental policy came to be divided into water quality, air quality, waste management, soil, underground water, noise & vibration, toxic substance management, parks & landscape, water supply, and sewage system, among others. In the 2000s, further areas were added, including energy, response to climate change, odor, and asbestos.

<Table 1> Changes to Seoul’s Environmental Management Policy Areas
 

 We can see the structure of Seoul’s administrative organizations and the process of development of environmental policy through Korean law and city ordinances.
 
The first environmental ordinance of Seoul was the Ordinance on Water Supply, enacted in 1949. The first national law on the environment was the Water Supply and Waterworks Installation Act in 1961, 12 years later. Seoul enacted an ordinance on special account installation for the sewage system in 1965, one year ahead of a related national law. Since then, however, the central government enacts laws and regulations and Seoul establishes ordinances to determine the needed details for implementation. When Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule in 1945 and the Korean War began in 1950, a national system had not yet been set up. Therefore, cities took the initiative to implement the projects necessary to provide the basic necessities for people, including drinking water, public cleaning and sewage systems. Since the 1960s when these national systems were structured, the central government has led the selection of issues and agendas related to the environment and established relevant systems.
 
We can see the process of environmental policy development by area through the history of revision of relevant laws and regulations. The first environmental policy related to Seoul was on water supply (the Water Supply and Waterworks Installation Act in 1949) and waste management followed (the Filth & Cleaning Act in 1961). Policies on the emission of pollutants causing air and water contamination appeared during the 5-Year Economic Development Plan in the early 1960s (Environmental Pollution Prevention Act in 1963) followed by the collection and treatment of sewage and waste water (Sewage System Act in 1966). In the 1970s, the Environmental Pollution Prevention Act was revised to become the Environment Conservation Act, which expanded environmental policy and introduced technical measures and a variety of regulations. In the 1970s and 1980s, the amount of waste increased rapidly as a result of economic growth, appearance of plastic products and increases in income. In that period, the laws and regulations related to waste management, divided into the Filth & Cleaning Act and the Environment Conservation Act, were integrated into the Waste Management Act (enacted in 1986).
 
In the 1990s, environmental management was subdivided by environmental media, and an environmental impact assessment system was introduced to estimate and minimize the effects of large-scale development projects on the environment, with the government beginning to mediate disputes. Environmental management specialized and expanded dramatically. In the early 1990s, basic laws such as the Framework Act on Environmental Policy (enacted in 1990) and the Natural Environment Conservation Act (enacted in 1991) were passed to set the direction for management in the main environmental areas and individual management laws were passed on water quality, air quality, waste, aquatic ecosystems, noise & vibration, harmful chemical substances, underground water, drinking water, soil, odor, in that order. The Environmental Dispute Conciliation Act was enacted in 1990 to mediate disputes in the nation over environmental damage. The Environmental Impact Assessment Act was legislated in 1999 to change the existing environmental management methods that controlled and monitored environmental pollution so that it did not exceed regulatory levels. According to the Act, environmental impact is to be evaluated during the preparation stage for government projects and private sector projects of a certain size to reduce the negative impact, modifying the project or establishing preventive plans as necessary, which in turn would be evaluated upon project completion.
 
In the 2000s, energy and response to climate change emerged as new agenda items in environmental management. The main tasks were to develop the technologies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including carbon and methane gas, develop the technologies to increase energy efficiency, produce energy in new ways and set the conditions for developing such technologies. The central government enacted the Framework Act on Sustainable Development in 2007 and the Framework Act on Green Growth in 2010, and Seoul established its Ordinance on Energy in 2002 and its Ordinance on Climate Change in 2008.
 

 <Figure 2> Development Process of Environment-Related Laws & Regulations

Governance

Green Seoul Citizens Committee

Seoul Action 21

ICLEI Activities

C40 Activities

Parks & Landscape

Main Parks & Landscape Projects by Period

The parks & landscape area of environmental management is divided into healthy green space, ecological preservation and park creation. In Seoul, most projects were creation and expansion of parks in the early stages, where much energy is still invested. The most important parks are Children’s Grand Park (1973), Seoul Grand Park (1984), Hangang (Han River) Park (1986), Yeouido Park (1999), World Cup Park (2002), Seoul Forest (2005) and Dream Forest Park in northern Seoul (2009). The wall removal project in 1996, the roof garden project in 2000 and the school park project in 2006 were facilitated to create small parks in the surrounding areas. Activities to ensure a healthy ecosystem began with a survey of the Hangang ecosystem in 1987, but actual projects began in the late 1990s. Some examples of these projects are designation of Bamseom Island on the Hangang as an ecological landscape conservation area in 1999, designation and management of protected wild animals in 2000, creation of small habitats for animals in the city in 2004 and designation and management of protected migratory bird areas in 2005.

<Figure 3> Main Parks & Landscape Projects by Period

Designation of Ecological Landscape Conservation Area

Seoul enjoys a broad biodiversity and designates areas of ecological importance and special value for conservation for special management as a way of protecting them from contamination and damage. Seventeen locations of 4,807,327 ㎡ have been designated in total: 1 area (Bamseom Island on the Hangang) in 1999, 1 area (Duncheon-dong) in 2000, 4 areas (Tancheon, Bangi-dong, Amsa-dong and Jingwan-dong) in 2002, 2 areas (Godeok-dong and Wonteo Valley of Mt. Cheonggyesan) in 2004, 1 area (Heoninneung) in 2005, 3 areas (Mt. Namsan, Samyukdae of Mt. Bulamsan and the rear yard of Changdeokgung Palace) in 2006, 2 areas (Mt. Bongsan and Mt. Inwangsan) in 2007 and 3 areas (downstream of Seongnaecheon, Mt. Gwanaksan and Baeksasil Valley) in 2009. Capturing, harvesting, transplanting, damaging or killing wild animals or plants is strictly forbidden, as it is to install explosives, traps, snares, nets, trap pits, etc. or spray or inject toxic chemicals, agricultural pesticides, etc. to capture or kill wild animals or plants, change the structure of rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. or increase or decrease the water level or quantity, collect soil or stones, reclaim water and make a fire. Those who are caught violating these bans face a fine of up to KRW 2 million.

<Figure 4> Bamseom Island on the Hangang - the first designated Ecological Landscape Conservation Area

View of Bamseom Island

Migratory birds on Bamseom Island

Designation & Management of Protected Wildlife

 Species of high scientific or ecological value that are gradually disappearing in Seoul are designated as protected wildlife. These designations occur based on recommendations made through the Hangang ecosystem and forest ecosystem surveys, etc. conducted by the SMG, and the recommendations of environmental organizations and related professional agencies. The designation process also includes consultations and advice from experts. Thirty-five species of swallows, toads, roe deer, and other wildlife were the first to be designated and an announcement was made on November 15^th, 2000. On October 25^th, 2007, 14 species of wild animals and plants including squirrels and onychodactylus fisheri were added.

<Table 4> Designation of Protected Wildlife 

Creation & Expansion of Parks

Children’s Grand Park (Completed in 1973)	Hangang Park (Completed in 1986)
World Cup Park (Completed in 2002)	Seoul Forest (Completed in 2005)

Water Management

Main Water Management Projects by Period

Seoul’s water management is divided into public sewage treatment, water quality monitoring of the Hangang and its tributaries, underground water management, rainwater management and management of wastewater discharging sources. Public sewage treatment started in 1978 when the Jungnang Sewage Treatment Plant began operations. Tancheon Sewage Treatment Plant was constructed in 1987, and Nanji and Seonam sewage treatment plants in 1994. Their performance has gradually improved so that they have discharged treated sewage water with BOD lower than 20 ㎎/L since 1993. As the management of effluent water quality has tightened since 2000, the BOD level of treated sewage of the Jungnang Sewage Treatment Plant is maintained at less than 10 ㎎/L. Water quality monitoring for the Hangang and its tributaries began in the early 1980s.

At that time, however, this was only through occasional surveys. Regular water quality monitoring at specific locations and for specific items began in the 1990s. Underground water management also began in the 1990s. In the 2000s, rainwater management (related ordinance enacted in 2005) and a water utilization promotion project (related ordinance enacted in 2011) began. Management of wastewater discharging sources began when the Environmental Pollution Prevention Act was legislated in 1963 and gradually strengthened, with the Environment Conservation Act in 1977 and the Water Quality Conservation Act in 1990 enacted. Because of the increasing unauthorized, illegal and opportunistic discharges of wastewater during the night, holidays and the rainy season, monitoring of wastewater discharging facilities is frequent.

<Figure 6> Main Water Management Projects by Period

Rainwater Management

Rainwater Moving Route of Seoul (2010)

Rainwater recycling facility in a park

Water Supply

Main Water Supply Projects by Period

Water supply management can be largely divided into tap water production, maintenance of distribution pipelines, and management of tap water quality. A water supply system was introduced to Seoul in 1908, during the late Joseon period, by an American technician named Henry Collbran, the 100th anniversary of which Seoul celebrated in 2008. In 1949, the Water Supply and Waterworks Installation Act of Seoul was passed. Since construction of Guui Water Purification Plant in 1974, a total of 6 plants (Gwangam, Amsa, Yeongdeungpo, Ttukdo and Gangbuk being the other five) have been built and are in operation. The membrane filtration process was introduced in 2011 to make the water cleaner tasting. Major maintenance of the water distribution pipeline began in 1984, replacing 13,122 km of the total 13,668 km of deteriorated pipelines by 2012. Thanks to this replacement, the tap water flow rate in the city improved remarkably between 2000 and 2012, from 72% to 94.5%. The quality of tap water is maintained through management of water supply sources, expansion of the items for inspection (from 28 in 1990 to 163 in 2012), and quality checks of household tap water, etc.

<Figure 9> Main Water Supply Projects by Period

Production of Tap Water

The first water supply system in the city was the water purification plant constructed at Ttukdo Reservoir, which was completed on September 1^st, 1908 by Collbran and another American, Harry Bostwick, who were authorized by Emperor Gojong to work on the water supply system project. Production capacity was 12,500 tons per day, which supplied 125,000 people with water. Three purification plants were operating in 1946 (Ttukdo, Noryangjin and Guui, with a total capacity of 150,000 m³ per day) and five in 1977 (with Bogwangdong and Yeongdeungpo added for a total capacity of 2.17 million m³ per day) in 1977. In 2004, Seoul closed the deteriorating and outdated Guui 1 & 2, Noryangjin, Sinwol, Seonyu and Bogwangdong water purification plants, leaving six plants in operation (Gwangam, Amsa, Guii, Tgukdo, Yeongdeungpo and Gangbuk).
 
As of 2012, the water purification and production capacity was 4.35 million m³ per day, supplying water to 10.44 million people: a 100% supply rate.
 
Prior to 1992, there was no reserve capacity for water supply plants, causing operational difficulties. However, sufficient purification facilities began operating in 1998 and stability of supply has been possible since then, with no areas lacking running water. In 2012, 1.20 billion tons of tap water was used, for an average of 3.216 million tons per day.

<Figure 10> Tap Water Production & Supply in Seoul 

Management of Air Quality

Main Air Quality Management Projects by Period

Air quality management is largely divided into establishment of environmental standards, fuel control, vehicle low-emission projects, transportation demand management, and establishment of the foundation for air quality management. Seoul began establishing air environment standards from 1979 on sulfurous acid, followed by standards on carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, total dust, ozone, hydrocarbons, lead and fine dusts, in that order. Standards for benzene were added in 2010. The SMG began applying its own air quality standards in 1998. Fuel control in Seoul began with regulation of sulfur content in 1981, followed by regulation of solid fuels (later banned) and policies on the use of unleaded gasoline, beginning the distribution of LNG (city gas) in 1998. To suppress vehicle emissions, the SMG began vehicle low-emission projects for diesel engines in cooperation with the metropolitan area in 2003, introduced a voluntary “Weekly No-Driving Day” also in 2003, and began to supply electric vehicles (EVs) in 2008.
 

Measuring stations systematize management of air quality, an ozone warning system was introduced in 1995, and a fine dust forecast and warning system in 2005 as a measure of defense against poor-quality air situations.

<Figure 11> Main Air Quality Projects by Period

Low Vehicle Emissions

Weekly No-Driving Day

The Weekly No-Driving Day campaign involves citizens deciding on their own which day of the week (Monday to Friday) they do not drive.   Residents are urged to join this campaign and use public transit more to reduce energy consumption in the age of high oil prices, ease heavy congestion and restore the air to its pleasant origins.

Air Quality Forecast & Warning System

The ozone warning system was introduced in July 1995 to minimize the impact of ozone on human health and living environments, address public concerns about air pollution and enhance the level of environmental awareness. Warnings are issued to residents in each of five areas (CBD, northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast) when the ozone (O3) concentration is higher than a certain level in their area, or will be, in consideration of air flow. Warnings, alerts, and alarms are issued according to the standards set for the region where the ozone standard was breached.

 

<Table 5> Criteria for Ozone Warning & Recommended Actions from the Public

 

Stage	Issuance Criteria	Actions by the Public
Warning	Ozone concentration in morning air is higher than 0.12 ppm	-Abstain from outdoor exercise. -The elderly, children and those with health conditions to abstain from outdoor activities. -Refrain from unnecessary driving and use public transit instead.
Alert	Ozone concentration in morning air is higher than 0.3 ppm	-The elderly, children and those with health conditions to abstain from outdoor activities. -Kindergartens and schools to keep their students indoors. -Vehicles advised to pass around the region where the alert has been issued.
Alarm	Ozone concentration in morning air is higher than 0.5 ppm	-The elderly, children and those with health conditions to refrain from outdoor activities. -Kindergartens and schools are advised to close. -Vehicles are advised not to enter the region where the alarm has been issued.

There are three categories of forecasts in the fine dust forecast and warning system: warnings and alarms. As air pollution worsened and public concern about fine dust grew due to the rapid growth in the number of vehicles, the SMG introduced this system, the first of its kind in Korea, on February 1st, 2005 as a way to minimize harm to health and contribute to reducing pollution. The fine dust forecast is created by estimating tomorrow’s dust concentration and relaying that information to residents as they make their outdoor plans. The forecast categories are Good (0~30㎍/m3), Normal (31~80㎍/m3), Potential Irritation for Sensitive Persons (81~121㎍/m3), Poor (121~200㎍/m3), Very Poor (201~300㎍/m3) and Dangerous (300㎍/m3~). The forecast is disseminated using the forecast computer systems after referring to the weather forecast by the Korea Meteorological Administration and verifying its accuracy. Detailed forecasts are also released at regular times (morning, mid-day, evening and midnight) when average concentration over 2 hours is estimated to be higher than “Potential Irritation for Sensitive Persons.” If the fine dust concentration is higher than a certain level, a warning or alarm is issued that advises people to stay indoors, abstain from driving, or cease construction work that generates dust. City workers may also be advised to wash down the roads with water and schools to close.
 
 

<Table 6> Criteria for Issuance & Cancellation of Fine Dust Warnings & Alarms

 

	Issued When	Cancelled When
Warning	Fine dust concentrations are higher than 200㎍/m2 per hour, averaged over 2 hours	Fine dust concentrations fall to lower than 100㎍/m2 per hour on average
Alarm	Fine dust concentrations are higher than 300㎍/m2 per hour, averaged over 2 hours	Fine dust concentrations fall to lower than 200㎍/m2 per hour on average

Waste Management

 

Main Waste Management Projects by Period

 
Waste management in Seoul is largely divided into construction of treatment facilities, separating recyclables and food waste from regular trash, introduction of a volume-based waste fee system (VBWF) and promotion of reuse.
 
The first waste handling facility in Seoul was the Nanji Landfill, used from 1978 to 1993. Since 1993, waste has been handled at a joint metropolitan landfill site in Incheon, jointly constructed by the central government and the SMG. The first waste incineration facility with high-tech features was Yangcheon Incinerator, constructed in 1996. Since then, Nowon facility was finished in 1997, Gangnam in 2001 and Mapo in 2005. While Mapo facility was built to handle household waste from Mapo-gu, Jung-gu and Yongsan-gu, the other 3 have processed household waste from neighboring autonomous gu-districts only since 2007, at which time the Mapo facility also expanded its coverage.
 
The collection of recyclables in Seoul began in 1990 from apartment complexes before being extended to single-family homes and commercial sites. At the beginning, significant amounts of garbage were mixed in, so the SMG introduced the VBWF system. Fees are levied according to the amount of waste produced, while the collection of recyclables remained free. The VBWF system contributed much to the acceptance of the need to separate recyclables properly. However, other problems soon appeared: there was enough perishable food waste from the recyclables to contaminate water and create strong odors in the facility vicinities, and it was difficult to find sufficient demand for the recyclables, as their supply increased remarkably in a short time. Food waste was then banned from landfills in 2005, and was collected separately. The Expanded Producer Responsibility system, introduced in 2003, helped increase the demand for recyclables.
 
In addition, Seoul opened a “sharing marketplace” in 2003 to support the exchange of second-hand goods, and began a metal recycling project in 2009 to handle metals and plastics, etc. from disassembly of small home appliances and devices such as mobile phones, electric fans, and landline telephones.

 
 

<Figure 13> Main Waste Management Projects by Period

 

Parks & Landscape

Water Quality

Tap Water Production Capacity

Air Quality

Waste Management